Do Black Holes have infinite Gravity Well?

Do Black Holes have infinite Gravity Well?

KRS Sri Murthy

A black hole is formed by the collapse of a star after it burns out all its hydrogen that produced energy, or just enough to create an imbalance between the inward gravitational energy and the outward force energy produced while the star is burning. The size of the black hole depends on the total mass that has collapsed. When a black hole is formed, the mass density of the burnt out star abruptly increases, as the black hole is extremely small compared to the star before the collapse.

The black hole wanders off in space owing to the gravitational attraction from different other super massive objects like other black holes of larger size. On its path the black hole would devour all matter it comes across. By accumulating mass in time, the black hole becomes larger and larger.

It is a tug of war between black holes, with the larger black holes devouring the smaller ones continuously gathering mass. When two black holes of comparable size and mass density meet each other, they start circling each other, resulting from the torque that creates rotation or circling of the two black holes around the common center of gravity. They behave like a rotating dumbbell, except that this dumbbell is of black hole size mass. While this dance of the two peer-level black holes continue, they gradually approach each other, finally to merge creating a big gravitational wave. The LIGO and VIRGO laboratories recently detected the gravitational waves from such merger of black holes.

The Perfect Black Hole

The black holes do have such high gravitational force that they not only tear apart any matter that crosses its event horizon, and also even light. That is why the black holes are not visible. The gravity well model is one of a very deep and steep profile that suddenly plummets to its bottom. However, the gravity well is not infinitely deep. The center of the black hole is not a geometrical point, as it is made to believe in most research material and articles in the media. If a black hole would have an infinitely deep, and bottomless gravity well, it would strictly and instantly disappear from this universe, not just only black with extreme gravity enough to swallow any light crossing its event horizon. Another way to interpret an infinitely deep and steep gravity well subtended by a black hole is that the steepness and depth so much that the bottom end of the black hole would be smaller in size than a Planck’s scale. In addition, any object or light falling into such a hypothetical infinitely deep and steep will take less than the Planck’s time to fall in to the bottom of the Planck’s scale. Any black hole even slightly short of that Planck’s space and time scale is not a perfect black hole.

It is also important to note that black holes move or wander in space, thus creating a black hole size gravity valley. A black hole meeting the Planck scale test will only disappear from the universe and for any observer. Any black hole that moves fails the Planck’s scale test, as it creates a trace of a gravity valley, and surely will have dimensions not meeting the Planck’s test. Here, I have defined with characterization and test for what I term as a “Perfect Black Hole”.

I recommend creating a rating or grading schema for black holes, as to their mass, mass density, gravity well profile and gravity valley profile. After the observation of many black holes, a statistically significant number of the black holes, using LIGO, VIRGO and other laboratories to be constructed in the future, the rating scheme could be used, validated for the efficacy of the rating schema, and developing a statistical distribution with tables, charts and graphs.

The big bang was probably a perfect hole in another universe, that pierced into our universe.

Murthy’s Gravity Well Models for Galaxies

Murthy’s Gravity Well Models for Galaxies

KRS Sri Murthy

Galaxies we know are all discs in shape, with variations to like spiral galaxies, nebula of galaxies and nurseries of stars and galaxies. The different disc galaxies vary in size, the over all radii or diameters, the core part of the galaxy with densely populated stars, the fringe areas of galaxies with sparsely populated stars, the tear away parts in the outer most fringes of stars trying to escape the grip of the galaxy, and in some galaxies the galaxy trying to pull stars wandering in the fringes into its grip.

As we know, all the galaxies have very powerful black holes in their centers, which rotate around an axis, which axis would also become the axis of the galaxy, with the black hole also rotating the disc of the galaxy.

In the case of stars which are spherical, the gravity well may have different well shapes from a very sharp cone to a wider cone with a relatively rounded bottom and also sometimes wider well bottom, as opposed to sharp cone with a point in the bottom. Being symmetrical for spherical shaped objects like stars and even planets, the well will yield similar gravitational force profile for all objects approaching the star or planet or other gravitationally powerful objects from any direction.

As all objects in our universe, small, big and very large, and with all masses and mass densities, are all moving, and not still at all, both objects attracting and being attracted create a valley of their own with the moving gravity well. The gravity wells create the valleys which merge with the others. The valley of object with lower mass and mass density will ultimately join the deeper valley of the dominant object, thus becoming a single combined gravity well and in motion a single gravity valley.

The speed, direction of motion, linear momentum, angular momentum, spin and the direction of the spin play important parts in the gravity well and gravity valley interactions and interplay between two objects. In rare cases of three or more objects interacting and influencing with each other, multiple wells, and their respective valleys consecutively, and in result cumulatively, merge with each other finally resulting in one gravity well and the respective gravity valley. In cases of two or more objects with very high linear momentum and angular momentum counter acting with each other, the two or more objects may simply pass each other, never to merge, never their gravity wells and gravity valleys merging with each other. The only influence of the objects on each other is to change the course of the other object, in result both changing their course.

The shapes of the gravity well and gravity valley of disc shaped objects are different compared to spherical objects. The disc shaped objects like the galaxies will not have a symmetrical gravity well with symmetry in all three dimensions of space, but symmetrical in only two space dimensions and relatively flatter well shape, oblong elliptic well, or a well with high eccentricity in one dimension of space. The result of this eccentric gravity well shape is for different type of interactions for stars or other celestial objects approaching the galaxy in different directions. Stars and other objects approaching the disc shaped galaxies from the direction of the disc plane experiences the longer side of the eccentric gravity well. However, any star or other object approaching the disc shaped galaxy not from the side of the disc but perpendicular direction will experience a different profile of the gravitational force, one that is a result of the flatter side of the gravity well and gravity valley.

Let us consider two of the disc shaped galaxies colliding with each other. Both galaxies may approach each other in any of the direction of the 3D sphere. Assuming equal chances of the approach of the two galaxies in all direction of the 3D space, the chances that the two of the disc galaxies approach exactly along the long direction is very low. Therefore, the two oblong gravity wells may “cut each other”. Depending on the direction, speed, linear momentum, any potential angular momentum, spin and the direction of the spin, there are few possibilities. The disc shaped galaxies may cut each other pass across each other thus becoming modified in shape, sharing some of their stars with each other, an exchange or “trading” of their stars with the other galaxy. The details depend on the motion and approach characteristics of the disc galaxies. The shape of the two oblong gravity wells will mutually influence, thus both modified galaxies becoming disc galaxies of different content details than before their mutual impact.

We know that all galaxies have super massive black holes in their center. The super massive black holes hold billions of stars in their grip. The overall gravitational force of the galaxy is the combined gravitational force of the black hole at the center and also of the billions of stars. The gravity well profile of the galaxy is an oblong well shape as seen from objects approaching the galaxy from the disc side. Objects of the size of stars, small and big, would be absorbed in the outer ring, never to be able to see the gravity profile part of the gravity well at the inner rings of stars orbiting the center of the galaxy. 

Even the stars in the galaxy in different rings of stars orbiting the galaxy center will only experience different gravity profiles based on their local ring, their distance from the center and the number of ring of orbiting stars interior to them. Based on our current observations and understanding, the different rings of stars around the galaxy rotate at the same angular momentum, starting from the closest ring of stars to the center of the galaxy and the farthest ring of stars. Therefore, the gravity well subtended by the disc shaped galaxy, being elliptical and oblong, will be flat moving from the oblong end towards the center. This is because the stars in the different groups in rings orbiting the center of the galaxy seem to orbit in unison, or as a whole group, with no drift from the edge to the center.

Murthy's Big Bang Models with different Assumptions

Murthy's Big Bang Models with different Assumptions

Assumptions

1. Our universe began with a big bang.
2. We do not know what existed before the big bang.
3. Both 3D space and time started with the big bang.
4. Planck’s limit for time and space applies, so that we do not know and will never be able to know anything before 10 to the power of minus 43 seconds and within a space of big bang expansion less than 10 to the power of minus 35 meters; all of these limits are due to the speed limit of light of 300 kilometers per second.

At the moment of the Big Bang

As soon as the big bang event, and above the Planck’s limit, the primordial elementary particles and including the light photons, were in a thick soup, the utmost thickness of the primordial soup limiting even the light photons from escaping out and away from the soup. The light photons were not light waves, but only particles. It required the 3D space to expand to a critical size, and the photons to not be limited by the mean free path of its collision with other photons and other primordial particles tightly embedded in the primordial soup.

What were the primordial elementary particles?

Following options will be discussed:

Quarks:

1. Protons or neutrons were not created at the big bang.
2. Only quarks were created at the big bang.
3. The neutrons were assembled out of the quarks.
4. Neutrons were created first which decayed to produce the protons and electrons.
5. Even the electrons were not created at the big bang.
6. Electrons were created as by-products when neutrons decayed to protons.
7. As neutrons do not have any charge, the decay of the neutrons was also the time of creation of the positive charge of the protons and the complementary negative charge of the electrons.
8. At the very moment of the big bang, the primordial universe did not have any charge.
9. Role and Importance of the Creation of the Electric Charges in the Universe:

As I will explain later in this document and have many times mentioned in my various writings, the charge is vital to the character of our universe; both positive and negative charges “run our universe”, also vital to the interaction of the photons and the wave version of the light. Electricity and magnetism are a result of the positive and negative charges, as is also critical to the electromagnetic waves, the electric and magnetic fields working in tandem when light and other electromagnetic waves travel. In other words, the decay of neutrons in the dawn of the big bang universe creates the “heartbeat” of the universe which are the electromagnetic waves, an interplay between the electric and magnetic fields, many time released by the electrons when the electrons jump from one energy state to a lower energy state. The electron is both the absorber and releaser of electromagnetic waves, including the energy from light wave, to be released back in the form of electromagnetic waves in one step as the elastic interaction or two steps in the elastic interaction.
10. The big bang energy was so enormous that the weak gravitational attractive forces between the primordial particles were not able to hold each other. With the absence of any charge in the primordial particle soup of quarks and the neutrons that were formed by the combining of the quarks, the expansion of the primordial space and the particles contents happened, thus creating space between the particles, opportunity for the photons to escape to form the electromagnetic waves.
11. When the decay of neutrons gave rise to protons and electrons, thus positive and negative charges, the universe was ready for the formation of the first atoms, those of hydrogen atom; the universe was poised for the hydrogen cloud. Over time with the accelerated expansion of the space in the universe, with the simultaneous increase in the mean free path of the particles in the universe, all or most of the neutrons decayed to form a large number of hydrogen atoms, free to roam around in the form of hydrogen cloud.
12. I have explained in my articles on stellar evolution the different sequential phases from the electronic clouds, nucleation phase, protostar phase, star formation, creation or concoction of helium and other elements

.

Star Genesis

Star Genesis

KRS Murthy

The Genesis of stars in our universe is intriguing. Stars are formed when a large cloud of hydrogen suddenly coalesce and thus collapse to a very high density, accompanied and followed by burning of the hydrogen, and hydrogen being the fuel. A critical mass of hydrogen is required at the beginning of this sudden collapse.

For us to understand further about star formation principles and the life time of stars, and also the death of stars, meaning hydrogen stars, it is imperative to investigate some fundamental concepts in physics, to especially understand the atomic level, molecular level, and star level fundamentals. I will explain one fundamental concept at a time, sometimes the relationships between the different or related concepts, or else your knowledge of fundamental physics and the physics of star formation will be fuzzy and even be incorrect many times.

Burning in Stars

All of us have seen the stars burning and produce heat, plasma and a lot of electromagnetic radiation. Our Sun as a star is an example of our own witness every day, so are other stars in our galaxy and stars in other galaxies of our universe. We have also know that the stars burn their hydrogen and fuse the hydrogen to form helium in its core, where the heat is in millions of degrees. The cores of stars are like oven of fusion, the fusion of hydrogen to produce helium. We know that hydrogen has one proton in the nucleus at its center and one electron orbiting the proton in the nucleus. Upon fusion, the result is the creation of a nucleus with two protons, and two electrons orbiting around the larger nucleus, thus making the helium atom.

What is really “burning” referred to in this context?

“Burning” is associated with the production of heat, flame, plasma, and electromagnetic radiation.

When atoms collide with each other they exchange kinetic energy. The atoms may bounce off each other, bounce between multiple other atoms, with collision and increased collision. Once a critical rate of collision is reached, electromagnetic radiation results.

The electromagnetic radiation may contain many frequencies and associated wavelengths. Electromagnetic radiation in the infrared wavelengths is heat. Wavelengths in smaller wavelengths from red to violet is seen as light, and associated colors, by humans. The different wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation of light create different sensations of colors, and white light, in human beings and animals. Light is an experience, as is the heat, in human brains, perceived and processed with and through the eyes, the full network of sensory components and especially understood by our brain. Heat radiation is sensed by other organs and their components in our body, finally perceived by our brain.

Our Sun as a star also produces ultraviolet, X rays and higher frequencies that even reach the earth. In the first satellite built and launched by India of which program I was fortunate to play a primary part, diurnal variation solar X rays were measured using scintillation counters on the satellite.

Burning is nothing but the increased collision of hydrogen atoms, resulting in the expulsion of radiation, which is perceived on earth as light, heat and electromagnetic radiation. However, it should be noted that only a small part of the electromagnetic radiation leaves the star like our Sun, expanding in all directions away from the Sun, out of which only a very insignificant part travels towards the earth, while many parts of the radiation is absorbed in their traveling path, and only the remaining fractional part reaches the earth.

What we receive on the earth is only a waste lost from the Sun, similar concepts being true for other stars also.

While radiation escapes the stars from their surface only, the remaining burning intensity inside and all the way to the core perform different functions. If we virtually travel from the surface of the stars towards its center, the intensity of collision increases. In other words, the intensity of collision of the hydrogen atoms translates to decreasing mean free path between the collision of the hydrogen atoms, which also translates to the density of hydrogen atoms per unit volume. Very close to the center of the star, the hydrogen atoms are pressured so close together that the electrons in orbit around the proton in the hydrogen atoms rip each others away from their nucleus, called degenerate electrons, giving the nuclei and their protons to come so very close to each other that protons join to form a larger nuclei of two protons; the electrons that were torn away from their original single proton nucleus find themselves orbiting around nuclei of two protons. This is the genesis of “Helium” atoms in the innermost core surrounded by hot “soup of hydrogen atoms.

Smaller stars may fuse hydrogen atoms in their core into helium atoms, whereas the larger stars can produce even more heat and pressure in their cores to do the further fusion of helium atoms into heavier atoms. This is because larger stars have even longer radius than the smaller stars, thus able to produce increased heat and atomic pressure harboring conditions for the fusion of hydrogen atoms to helium atoms, and further to heavier atoms. The heat and atomic pressure is proportional to the size of the stars.

Helium is the second most abundant element in the universe and is a major component of main sequence stars such as the Sun. Helium accumulates in the core of stars as a result of hydrogen nuclear fusion. Helium accounts for approximately 27 percent of the Sun's mass

Chemical composition. When stars form in the present Milky Way galaxy they are composed of about 71% hydrogen and 27% helium, as measured by mass, with a small fraction of heavier elements

27 million degrees Fahrenheit

At the core of the sun, gravitational attraction produces immense pressure and temperature, which can reach more than 27 million degrees Fahrenheit(15 million degrees Celsius). Hydrogen atoms get compressed and fuse together, creating helium. This process is called nuclear fusion.

Once the temperature reaches 15,000,000 degrees Celsius, nuclear fusion takes place in the center, or core, of the cloud. The tremendous heat given off by the nuclear fusion process causes the gas to glow creating a protostar. This is the first step in the evolution of a star.

The incredible mass of stars creates intense heat and pressure in the core, triggering the fusion process, so it makes sense that the more mass, and therefore gravity, that a star has, the greater the pressure, and the more fusion is going to be driven.
Luminosity is a measure of the power of a star. Since fusion is the source of energy in a star, we should expect the luminosity to increase as we increase the rate of fusion. Radius and temperature, on the other hand, are better understood empirically.

As a star ages, however, it begins to run out of hydrogen in its core. Since fusion provides the force to hold the star up against gravity, as fusion slows down, the core becomes denser and heats up. As it does so, the outer layers of the star expand and cool, and the star moves to the right of the diagram where we find the red giant and supergiant stars.

Radius, therefore, depends more on the age of the star than anything else, however, more massive stars will ultimately make for larger stars in the long run.

Stars are classified according to their physical characteristics. Characteristics used to classify stars include color, temperature, size, composition, and brightness. Stars vary in their chemical composition.

The Sun is a G2V type star, a yellow dwarf and a main sequence star. Stars are classified by their spectra (the elements that they absorb) and their temperature. There are seven main types of stars. In order of decreasing temperature, O, B, A, F, G, K, and M.

Why does our universe feature only neutron stars and black holes?

Why does our universe feature only neutron stars and black holes?

Krs Murthy

Why not proton stars? Have you all thought about it? The protons need to be bounded by electrons, or else they will fly off of each other.

In a "Hydrostatic Equilibrium", the outward pressure and the gravity will be in balance. The stars attempt to maintain equilibrium by striking a balance between the gravity of their enormous mass and the pressure produced by the energy
of fusion reactions. Stars like our Sun are termed as Main Sequence Stars.

The main sequence star is in equilibrium as hydrogen burning supports it against gravitational collapse.

What happens as the hydrogen runs out?

Off the main sequence, the stellar properties depend on both mass and age:

1. Those that have finished fusing H to He in their cores are no longer in the main sequence.
2. All stars become larger and redder after exhausting their core hydrogen: giants and super-giants.
3. Most stars end up small and dim after fusion has ceased: white dwarfs.
4. Observations of star clusters show that a star becomes larger, redder, and more luminous after its time on the main sequence is over.
5. At the end of their main sequence lifetime, when hydrogen in the core is exhausted, stars ascend the red giant stage.

In a Neutron Star, all the electrons collapse into the nucleus combining with the protons, thus becoming a star with only neutrons. Neutrons do not repel each other.

This happens due to intense gravitation after a star burns completely and uses up all its hydrogen fuel. The star while active is balanced by the outward pressure of the burning fuel against the intense gravitation of its core. Once the star runs out of the fuel, the outward pressure loses over to the inner core's gravitational pull. Depending on the mass of the star, it may become one of few of the categories listed below: As a star ages, however, it begins to run out of hydrogen in its core. Since fusion provides the force to hold the star up against gravity, as fusion slows down, the core becomes denser and heats up. As it does so, the outer layers of the star expand and cool, and the star moves to the right of the diagram where we find the red giant and super-giant stars.

Radius, therefore, depends more on the age of the star than anything else, however, more massive stars will ultimately make for larger stars in the long run.

Stars are classified according to their physical characteristics. Characteristics used to classify stars include color, temperature, size, composition, and brightness. Stars vary in their chemical composition.

The Sun is a G2V type star, a yellow dwarf and a main sequence star. Stars are classified by their spectra (the elements that they absorb) and their temperature. There are seven main types of stars. In order of decreasing temperature, O, B, A, F, G, K, and M

From where did all the heavy elements come to earth?

From where did all the heavy elements come to earth?

Krs Murthy

Our Sun is currently burning, or fusing, hydrogen into helium. This is the process that occurs during most of a star's lifetime. After the hydrogen in the star's core is exhausted, the star can burn helium to form progressively heavier elements, carbon and oxygen and so on, until iron and nickel are formed. This is all in the future life of our Sun.

Therefore, all the heavy elements like silver, gold, lead, platinum, uranium and all the heavier elements must have come from other stars of our galaxy that are many times larger and older than our very young Sun. It is even possible that the different heavy elements in the mineral and other deposits might have come from stars in other galaxies hundreds to thousands in size and age compared to our Sun. The deposits were probably "Cosmic Gift Parcels" carried from various stars of various ages many times older and light years farther deposited by the interstellar and inter-galactic traveling space objects.

This type of material transfers is probably so common, especially in universal time scales, that many planets may exist orbiting the stars in our galaxy and other galaxies gifted from multiple deposit transfer between stars that are actually cosmic and galactic foundries of different elements.

What is “Burning” of the Hydrogen in the Stars?

What is “Burning” of the Hydrogen in the Stars?

Krs Murthy

All of us have seen the stars burning and produce heat, plasma and a lot of electromagnetic radiation. Our Sun as a star is an example of our own witness every day, so are other stars in our galaxy and stars in other galaxies of our universe. We have also know that the stars burn their hydrogen and fuse the hydrogen to form helium in its core, where the heat is in millions of degrees. The cores of stars are like oven of fusion, the fusion of hydrogen to produce helium. We know that hydrogen has one proton in the nucleus at its center and one electron orbiting the proton in the nucleus. Upon fusion, the result is the creation of a nucleus with two protons, and two electrons orbiting around the larger nucleus, thus making the helium atom.

Hydrogen Burning on the Earth Versus on the Stars

The earth has an atmosphere of oxygen among other gases. The burning of hydrogen on the earth includes mixing of the hydrogen with the oxygen in the atmosphere, producing the by-product of water. This is aerobic combustion, meaning participation of oxygen in the combustion process. Oxygen participates in all combustion processes on the earth.
However, the stars, including our sun, may not have 'manufactured' the oxygen and may have only hydrogen or helium. Therefore, the burning in stars like our sun is anaerobic. The heat is produced by the gas pressure of hydrogen or helium as an example. In these type of anaerobic combustion processes, gaseous pressure and heat are two expressions of the same property of the gaseous activities.

If the hydrogen is “burning” in the anaerobic mode in a star, where do the heat radiation and also other electromagnetic waves come from? You may note that hydrogen atoms have only one proton in the nucleus with only one electron orbiting the nucleus. As we know in the physics of electromagnetic radiation from atoms require the electrons to gain energy and move to a higher orbit and be an excited state, to later drop back to the original energy state, thus giving out the energy difference in the form of an energy quantum. The differential energy quantum has an associated frequency or wavelength expressed by Planck-Einstein relation, and it looks like this: E = hf. Here, E is the energy of each packet (or 'quanta') of light, measured in Joules; f is the frequency of light, measured in hertz; and h is the Planck's constant.

Where does the energy come from for the electrons to get to an energized state?

The only energy that drives the whole process, the sequence of processes, starting from a hydrogen cloud to the formation of a star, star burning, production of heavier elements, the full life cycle, is the gravitational forces. This force could act in the cohesion of the hydrogen atoms in the hydrogen cloud bringing the atoms together, especially suddenly, rather than slowly. This is like a chain of reactions that accelerates as the hydrogen atoms are drawn to each other with increasing force, the force increased by a square law with decreasing distance from each other. Once a critical density of the hydrogen atoms is reached, there is no turning back, as the different phases of star formation, it temperature and pressure increasing starting from the surface towards the core.

Higher the mass of the overall hydrogen cloud at the starting of the chain of reactions leading to the star formation, the higher the resulting temperature/pressure at the core, which increases progressively with time.

Once the surface reaches a critical temperature it starts glowing with the emission of electromagnetic waves, including infrared, visible light spectrum, ultraviolet and X rays. The emission spectrum is a reflection of the spectrum of vibrational modes of the energy of the hydrogen atoms on the surface of the star.

What is really “burning” referred to in this context?

“Burning” is associated with the production of heat, flame, plasma, and electromagnetic radiation.

When atoms collide with each other they exchange kinetic energy. The atoms may bounce off each other, bounce between multiple other atoms, with collision and increased collision. Once a critical rate of collision is reached, electromagnetic radiation results.

The electromagnetic radiation may contain many frequencies and associated wavelengths. Electromagnetic radiation in the infrared wavelengths is heat. Wavelengths in smaller wavelengths from red to violet is seen as light, and associated colors, by humans. The different wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation of light create different sensations of colors, and white light, in human beings and animals. Light is an experience, as is the heat, in human brains, perceived and processed with and through the eyes, the full network of sensory components and especially understood by our brain. Heat radiation is sensed by other organs and their components in our body, finally perceived by our brain.

Our Sun as a star also produces ultraviolet, X rays and higher frequencies that even reach the earth. In the first satellite built and launched by India of which program I was fortunate to play a primary part, diurnal variation solar X rays were measured using scintillation counters on the satellite.

Burning is nothing but the increased collision of hydrogen atoms, resulting in the expulsion of radiation, which is perceived on earth as light, heat and electromagnetic radiation. However, it should be noted that only a small part of the electromagnetic radiation leaves the star like our Sun, expanding in all directions away from the Sun, out of which only a very insignificant part travels towards the earth, while many parts of the radiation is absorbed in their traveling path, and only the remaining fractional part reaches the earth.

What we receive on the earth is only a waste lost from the Sun, similar concepts being true for other stars also.

While radiation escapes the stars from their surface only, the remaining burning intensity inside and all the way to the core perform different functions. If we virtually travel from the surface of the stars towards its center, the intensity of collision increases. In other words, the intensity of collision of the hydrogen atoms translates to decreasing mean free path between the collision of the hydrogen atoms, which also translates to a density of hydrogen atoms per unit volume. Very close to the center of the star, the hydrogen atoms are pressured so close together that the electrons in orbit around the proton in the hydrogen atoms rip each others away from their nucleus, called degenerate electrons, giving the nuclei and their protons to come so very close to each other that protons join to form a larger nuclei of two protons; the electrons that were torn away from their original single proton nucleus find themselves orbiting around nuclei of two protons. This is the genesis of “Helium” atoms in the innermost core surrounded by hot “soup of hydrogen atoms.

Smaller stars may fuse hydrogen atoms in their core into helium atoms, whereas the larger stars can produce even more heat and pressure in their cores to do a further fusion of helium atoms into heavier atoms. This is because larger stars have even longer radius than the smaller stars, thus able to produce increased heat and atomic pressure harboring conditions for the fusion of hydrogen atoms to helium atoms, and further to heavier atoms. The heat and atomic pressure is proportional to the size of the stars.

Helium is the second most abundant element in the universe and is a major component of main sequence stars such as the Sun. Helium accumulates in the core of stars as a result of hydrogen nuclear fusion. Helium accounts for approximately 27 percent of the Sun's mass

Chemical composition. When stars form in the present Milky Way galaxy they are composed of about 71% hydrogen and 27% helium, as measured by mass, with a small fraction of heavier elements

27 million degrees Fahrenheit

At the core of the sun, gravitational attraction produces immense pressure and temperature, which can reach more than 27 million degrees Fahrenheit(15 million degrees Celsius). Hydrogen atoms get compressed and fuse together, creating helium. This process is called nuclear fusion.

Once the temperature reaches 15,000,000 degrees Celsius, nuclear fusion takes place in the center, or core, of the cloud. The tremendous heat given off by the nuclear fusion process causes the gas to glow creating a protostar. This is the first step in the evolution of a star.

The incredible mass of stars creates intense heat and pressure in the core, triggering the fusion process, so it makes sense that the more mass, and therefore gravity, that a star has, the greater the pressure, and the more fusion is going to be driven.

Luminosity is a measure of the power of a star. Since fusion is the source of energy in a star, we should expect the luminosity to increase as we increase the rate of fusion. Radius and temperature, on the other hand, are better understood empirically.

As a star ages, however, it begins to run out of hydrogen in its core. Since fusion provides the force to hold the star up against gravity, as fusion slows down, the core becomes denser and heats up. As it does so, the outer layers of the star expand and cool, and the star moves to the right of the diagram where we find the red giant and supergiant stars.

Radius, therefore, depends more on the age of the star than anything else, however, more massive stars will ultimately make for larger stars in the long run.

Stars are classified according to their physical characteristics. Characteristics used to classify stars include color, temperature, size, composition, and brightness. Stars vary in their chemical composition.

The Sun is a G2V type star, a yellow dwarf and a main sequence star. Stars are classified by their spectra (the elements that they absorb) and their temperature. There are seven main types of stars. In order of decreasing temperature, O, B, A, F, G, K, and M.

Stellar Evolution in Murthy's Gravity Model Interpretation

Stellar Evolution in Murthy's Gravity Model Interpretation

Krs Murthy

NOTE 1: The name molecular cloud is used in the scientific literature in cosmology and stellar evolution. However, the cloud actually consists of predominantly hydrogen atoms, and some percentage pf helium, and extremely small percentage of higher elements. However, they are all atoms, not molecules.

NOTE 2: I am conforming to other scientists and other writers by using the word “molecule” in this writing. Please read in your mind “atom” when you see the word “molecule” in this article. I am seriously considering deviating from other scientists and writer and use the word “atom” in my writing and lectures very soon.

Stars are formed in regions of molecular clouds and cosmic dust called nebula. The word nebula, the plural being nebulae is just Latin word for cloud. These areas of cloud are very large areas of the universe, present in many areas. For example, the vast areas between stars are known as the interstellar cloud.

The different parts of these clouds have different densities. The differential densities cause movement of different areas of the cloud. During these movements of cloud areas of different densities, nucleation of higher concentrations happen. A wide variety of nucleations and nucleations of different sizes, densities, and vigor happen. Some nucleations may grow, while others may die out, which is akin to abortions in human and animal pregnancy. Nucleations proximate to each other may combine, or larger nucleations may gobble up smaller nucleations. Once a critical nucleation size, density, and intensity levels are reached, there would be no turning back.

The molecular cloud around the center of the nucleations are sucked in as the molecular cloud collapses into the nucleations, with the combined cloud collapsing under its own weight. The analogy for us to easily imagine this process is that of the whirlpool generation in a body of water like a pond, lake, river or ocean. Whirl nucleations in bodies of water happen frequently enough, but many die out without enough critical mass, size and vigor are reached. Once a whirling picks up, there is no turning back. It is also important to note that even in the molecular clouds, after farming into nebulae, the successful nucleations may start whirling, or rotating around an axis, to draw in the surrounding molecular clouds. The collapse of the molecular cloud sets in motion of the formation of the phase in star formation called “protostar”.

Murthy's Gravity Model and Interpretation of the Star Formation Process

I have written articles on my interpretation of the play of gravity in the space-time continuation. I will provide references for the readers.

Every object, however small like the elementary particles, and all large objects like planets, stars, galaxies, galaxy clusters, super galactic size monsters, and including black holes subtend a well in the three dimensional (3D), space and time continuum, that I call them as “gravity wells”. The gravity wells may be small and shallow as in the cases of smaller objects. In large and super large objects, the gravity wells would be very deep and wide. The deep and wide gravity wells of the large and massive objects cast a wide gravity trap net around them so that any other object smaller and less massive would be drawn in trapped to fall into its gravity well. After the trapping, the two gravity wells become merged into one larger and deeper gravity well. Successive such gravity well mergers create larger and deeper gravity wells, through the accumulation of mass.

When an object is dense with much mass in small space, the gravity well is narrow and deep, whereas, in the example of a molecular cloud and nebulae, the density of mass makes the gravity well shallow and wide, around a given area/region of the molecular cloud. As the nucleations happen, the mass density increases in that area of nucleations. As the progression of the molecular cloud becoming a nebula, further in the nucleation stage, and still further rapid phase of the nucleation sucking the mass of molecular cloud and nebulae around it, the accelerated phase towards the protostar, the gravity well increases in depth and narrows progressively, resulting in mass density increase to become the protostar.

Starting as individual atoms of hydrogen, with insignificant extremely shallow gravity wells, the hydrogen atoms accumulate in successive steps and the phases of the formation of the protostar, gravity well depth, and mass density get to an irreversible pathway to becoming a protostar, and further a burning star, which at its core subtends an extremely narrow and deep gravity well.

This powerful gravity well at the very core of the star is actually the foundry to make helium from hydrogen, by fusing the two protons from two separate nuclei into a singular nucleus of two protons, with the two electrons finally orbiting the new helium nucleus.

It is also important to note that this gravity well foundry and other outer core areas within the stellar size gravity well makes it very difficult for the released electromagnetic waves, including light photons and also neutrinos, as in the case of our Sun, to escape from its gravity grip. The light photons and the neutrinos take a long time to escape the grip of the stellar grade gravity well. Both the light photons and the neutrinos will not be traveling at their normal speeds that they do in free space. Only after a struggle against the grip of the gravity well and delay, do the light photons emerge out as light waves. Inside the gravity well the light is only a photon particle, not a wave. Only after it emerges out of the star, do photons get their “wings” as a light wave. Similar struggles are true for the neutrinos. However, the neutrinos with no charge can escape from the gravity well faster than the light photons. Once the light photons are released into the free space, they are faster as light waves compared to the neutrinos in the free space.

It is also important to note that the gravity wells when in motion in the 3D space create gravity valleys along the path of travel. It is also important to understand that every object, very small elementary particle to galactic size, is in motion, never steady and stationary, under the continuous influence of its surrounding objects, always moving, thus gravity wells are traversing the 3D space in time, charting a gravity valley. The gravity valleys merge to create deeper and wider gravity valleys. In reality, there are now gravity wells, but only gravity valleys.

Human Scale versus Universal Scale

Human Scale versus Universal Scale

KRS Murthy

The human scale has been, for most of the history, the scale of objects on the earth, the sky, the waters, and the heavens that could be seen with the naked eye and experienced by our five senses. Scientists have discovered and delved into scales slightly beyond this scale experienced and understood by the common man. In the recent decades with the telescopes, beyond the scale visible to the human eye, astronomers and aerospace scientists have exploited the full electromagnetic spectrum from radio waves to gamma rays to see farther into the universe, deeper into the sky and also back in time few light years. Nanotechnologists and quantum physicists have uncovered the secrets of the space-time realms that are not apparent to the commoner, to appreciate the wonders down to subatomic scale.

Humans with ten fingers probably based their arithmetic number systems to base ten, that we call as “decimal number system”, that has been the foundation of all our knowledge, measurement and comprehension. For scales that are larger and for parameters that grow and behave exponentially, the logarithmic system of representation has been developed. However, the universal scale is too large to be represented the same way from the smallest in elementary particles to the size of the universe reaching out to the Hubble horizon.

Planck scale is used at the lower limit realm of elementary particle scale, defined and limited by the speed of light. Planck length is at 10 to the power of minus 35 meters, whereas the Planck time is at the 10 to the power of minus 43 seconds. The Planck scale limit is imposed by and defined by the speed of light of 300,000 kilometers per second or 300,000,000 meters per second or 3 X 10 to the power of 8 meters per second. To travel the distance of Planck length of 10 to the power of minus 35 it takes 10 to the power of minus 43 seconds. All these numbers have many zeroes before the decimal point on the universal scale, and after the decimal point for elementary particle and Planck scale.

Using the logarithmic scale of representation to base ten is not enough, as the full range from the smallest to the largest in the universe requires almost 100 zeroes. Even when we jump from a base of 10 to a base of 1000, the number of digits requires more the 35 zeroes. I suggest that we use a base of one million or a billion to reduce the number of zeroes to 16 or 8 respectively. I know that humans were not born with one thousand fingers or one million fingers! We could deal with fewer numbers of zeroes by moving to a base of one million or one billion.

Before and Just After the Big Bang

Before and Just After the Big Bang

KRS Murthy

Current Understanding of Science of Big Bang & the Universe

We all know about the big bang, that it was a singularity; singular singularity may also be used to qualify this unique and one-time event. Current understanding is that there was nothing, yes absolutely nothing, before the big bang; not even space and time, combined called as space-time fabric. Owing to the limitations of Plank time, 10 to the power of minus 45 seconds, the time required for the light to travel the distance of Plank length, which is 10 to the power of minus 35 meters, whatever happened after the singular big bang, nothing is observable for the duration of the first Planck time, the physical time and space limitation imposed by Plank constants. 

Further, space-time fabric became available for observation after the first Planck space and time scale limit, at least in theory. As space-time fabric didn't exist before the big bang, everything was born after the big bang.

We have all heard of dark matter and dark energy. Dark matter in our universe is six times that of Baryonic matter, the regular visible/observable matter. Dark energy is 75% of all matter and energy combined. The approximate tally is 75% dark energy, 20 percent dark matter and 5% observable matter and energy combined. Both dark matter and dark energy are not observable, and thus are qualified with the adjective "dark".

Murthy's Postulations as Possibilities

My postulates are possibilities for what happened before and after the big bang. I postulate that before the big bang, space and time existed with only dark matter and dark energy existing in the space-time fabric. However, any hypothetical observer could have not observed the dark matter and dark energy. 

The big bang was actually the birth of what we call as Baryonic matter, electromagnetic wave energy, and also photons. I differentiate photon as particles of light, versus the electromagnetic light wave. The photons could not escape the superdense Baryonic matter just after the big bang. The mean free path of the photons was at Planck scale just after the big bang. Once this mean free path got relaxed with the Baryonic matter spreading away from each other, the photons escaped becoming light waves with the electromagnetic wave property. 

The dark matter with its immense gravity pull on the Baryonic matter made the expansion happen, which is called "inflation". The dark matter also helped to scaffold and create structures out of the Baryonic matter, which in due course formed the different celestial objects at stellar and galactic scale.

The dark energy pushed the space between the celestial objects by creating space in between the celestial objects. This pushing and spreading of the space between the celestial objects are still happening at an accelerated pace, resulting in a runaway towards and past the Hubble horizon. 

Before the humans came into being on the earth, able to perform cosmic activity observations, many celestial may have run away and escaped into the Hubble horizon. 

You may consider reading my blog about the runaway effect that I postulate to be a gravity well effect.

Murthy's Postulate on the Galactic Runaway in terms of "Gravity Well Effect"

Murthy's Postulate on the Galactic Runaway 

in terms of "Gravity Well Effect"

Based on cosmological observations of the celestial objects of galactic and supergalactic scale, and the redshift of the light from these objects, these objects are running away, and also running away at an accelerated pace, as observed from the earth. Our earth, our solar system, our galaxy MilkyWay, with few our neighboring galaxies at the center, all other galactic clusters in all directions are moving away, leaving us in the center. There are few explanations for this runaway. I will list below the explanations now in vogue in the cosmological scholarly circles, with my own postulations, along with my logic for my postulations below:

Dark Energy Theory: 

This galactic runaway is due to dark energy. We can't observe or measure this dark energy, thus the moniker "dark energy". The dark matter which seems to exert powerful gravitational forces on the galactic and supergalactic scale has not been observed other than by its gravitational effects, even though the dark matter is estimated to be 5 times more than the Baryonic matter we are familiar with through experimental observations.  Similarly, the dark energy is estimated to be 75 % of all matter and energy in the universe, the universe inside the Hubble horizon. Many postulations for dark matter and dark energy have not been verified by experimental observations.

Murthy's Postulates on Runaway Galaxies: 

My postulations for the dark energy are radically different from those in vogue. Let me first use the premise of the "gravity well" and "gravity valley" already postulated by me applicable for all space-time realms above the quantum realm. The applicable space-time realms for my gravity well and gravity valley include micro, macro, planetary, stellar, galactic, also for the super cluster of galaxies, and universal scales. 

I postulate that our local galactic neighbors and our galaxy Milky Way, which includes all the stars, other celestial objects, and our solar system with the associated planets, moons and the asteroid belt, are all in the process of falling into a gravity well. Any single or a group of objects in the process of falling into a gravity well will perceive all objects not included in this fall as running away from this falling object or group of objects. 

Instead of the present explanation that the other galactic clusters and groups running away due to dark energy exerting force to create space-time fabric between those running away compared to those at the center witnessing the runaway, my postulation is an antithesis. 

When an object or a group of objects fall into a gravity well, the fall accelerates with the fall velocity increasing in time. In fact, that is what is observed now which the current explanations in vogue call runaway. When an object or a group of objects fall into a gravity well and are at the horizon of the gravity wells influence when at the same time the rest of the objects or a group of objects in all directions are not part of the wall, the perceived result is the falling objects relatively other objects in all directions not participating in fall and running away. This is because an observer moving away from the rest perceives as if the rest of the objects are moving away.  

When the moving object is under the influence of a gravity well, the acceleration of the distance from the rest not participating in the gravity well fall or space-time fabric separation, also perceived as space-time expansion, is exactly that observed now called "the runaway".

Gravity Wells and Gravity Hills

Gravity Wells and Gravity Hills

KRS Murthy

Gravity Wells

In my previous blogs, I have discussed various behaviors and space - time properties of the gravity wells caused by different objects, from very tiny to the cosmic scale. The gravity wells of tiny objects have a shallow well, whereas the gravity wells of stellar, galactic, supergalactic scale objects are very deep, and the gravity wells of black holes being the deepest, so much so that it is almost bottomless. While dense objects have the very small circumference and area of gravity wells, those which are not so dense have wider gravity wells.

In fact, all objects in the universe, very tiny to very large, are always moving, with no exception. This is because all objects have their own gravity wells, yet traveling towards other objects which have relatively deeper gravity wells in their path. The larger and denser the object, the larger the number of relatively smaller objects it pulls and traps into its well. While the earth has only one moon falling into its gravity well, even when the earth itself is falling into the supermassive sun, along with other smaller and larger planets also falling into the gravity well of the sun.

At the scale of our galaxy Milky Way, billions of stars orbiting in their path towards and inside the gravity well of the giant black hole. All gravity wells are running towards to be trapped into falling in larger and deeper gravity wells. It is a universal scale phenomenon of gravity wells of all size merging into bigger and deeper gravity wells.

Gravity Wells inside other Larger Gravity Wells 
and further inside much Larger Gravity Wells

If an observer from outside would come into our galaxy, the observer would experience the welcome of the galactic scale gravity well. Once the observer is inside the Milky Way gravity well, it starts approaching in its path inside the Milky Way it experiences the welcome of the gravity wells of different extragalactic objects, and further inside towards different stars of different sizes, probably trapped into one star's gravity well, further only to be trapped towards a planet of that star, and even may reach one of the moons of the planet of the star. It is important to realize what the observer experiences starting from the largest galactic scale gravity well, further relatively smaller gravity wells, one gravity well hiding and holding smaller gravity wells. The observer experiences the doorway of many gravity wells, one inside the other, One doorway leads to another doorway.

Gravity Hills

In this blog, I will define, characterize and explain the opposite to gravity wells, which I call "gravity hills", which is caused by dark energy that creates new space between, especially galactic scale objects, in the time dimension. The reason I am separating the space dimension and the time dimension will be clear in the following description. The space that is created between galactic scale objects in the universe pushes the objects away from each other. This expansion of space accelerates resulting in the galactic scale objects moving away or running away from each other faster and faster in time. This could happen only if the dark energy also increases at an accelerated pace in the time dimension. The runaway speeds of the galactic scale objects ultimately reach and surpass the speed of light. The Hubble horizon is the horizon as observed by an observer on one of the runaway galactic object as it observes the other galactic scale objects that is running away. As light is the fastest to be observed originating from one object towards the other, the two running away galactic scale objects can not see each other once the runaway is faster than the speed of light. 

If gravity well creates the falling of the smaller object with a relatively shallower gravity well into the larger object with a deeper gravity well, the runaway of two galactic scale objects due to dark energy pushing both of them away from each other could be visualized as a gravity hill rising between the galactic scale objects pushing the space between them. The gravity hill being narrow at the top and gradually and progressively widening, in addition, the raising of the gravity hill accelerating its ascent in time. This is exactly in principle to gravitational force exerted by earth on an object falling towards earth with the acceleration of g. 

Mass of an Object Depends on the Gravity Well it Resides

KRS Murthy

Gravity is all pervasive. Every object, small to very large, veiled gravity on all objects around it, or is pulled towards other objects that have more mass. Gravity acts on the space – time fabric to create a “Gravity Well”. Every object in the universe, small to big, creates a gravity well in the space - time fabric and resides inside its gravity well at its depth and in the center. When the object moves, it drags its gravity well with it, If we draw a time diagram of its gravity well, it would look like a “Gravity Valley” in its locus in the space – time fabric, Any other object, which would also have a gravity well, dragging its gravity well with it creating a valley, comes towards another object, the more massive object dominates by pulling the object with its gravity well, at the end combining their gravity wells into a larger gravity well.

In general, all objects in the universe will be in constant motion pulled towards more massive objects that are the nearest in the space – time locus. After the big bang, and after atoms were formed, the atoms in motion coalesced in a series of accretion process, finally becoming larger objects, gathering mass and momentum. Mass translates into the gravity well, while momentum translates to the gravity valley created by the moving mass in a locus. The “Merging of the Gravity Wells” create “Merged Gravity Wells”. After a series of merging of the gravity wells, larger and deeper gravity well, and deeper and wider larger gravity valleys would be created. This continual gravity well mergers resulted in stars, planets and other celestial objects. Very large objects like galaxies, galaxy clusters are all held inside their respective very deep gravity wells, and in motion respective very deep and wide gravity valleys. The gravity well of a black hole is so deep that no object that comes under its super gravity influence can escape falling into the gravity well forever, even light. Giant super clusters of galaxies can even bend light creating a gravity lensing effect as seen by an observer.

Our universe was born with the sudden appearance of a very narrow and extremely deep gravity well, which is believed by scientists to have come out of nothing. This deep gravity well expanded in width and in time tore apart into many smaller and less deep gravity wells. Trapped in these larger number of gravity wells were light and many elementary particles, some of them did not live in gravity wells, nor had their own gravity wells. The elementary particles like neutrinos and light photons never acquired their own wells. Having no gravity wells of their own, they also do not create any gravity valley in their locus traveling through the space – time fabric. However, the exception is that when these with no gravity well or valley locus pf their own come near the influence of black holes, they fall into the trap of the bottomless gravity well, and disappear forever.

We don't know why neutrinos and light waves or photons are trapped by dark matter about which we only know of its super deep gravity wells, and nothing more. Dark energy seems to push large clusters of super deep gravity wells away from each other.

When we study stars like our sun which are super deep gravity well, looking deeper inside, we see many very small gravity wells moving around very fast, with light and neutrinos escaping the gravity well, seemingly creating the effect of one single and integrated super deep gravity well. This true for all very deep and much less deep gravity wells. Like planets and even smaller objects. It goes to show that perception and effect of a single deep gravity well may be deceiving, yet they are made of many small gravity wells.

Depending on the mass of an object, the depth of the well is automatically defined. Depending on the mass density or specific gravity of the object, the circumference, and area of the gravity well, and the circumference limit of its gravity well is automatically defined. More the mass, the deeper the gravity well; more the mass density, narrower the gravity well.

Let us imagine a non-interacting observer approaching a gravity well of an object as a visitor on its own, and alternatively hitchhiking another object that approaches the target object. Once the observer approaches close enough inside the gravity well influence, the observer falls into the gravity well. Depending on the mass of the target or destination object, the observer experiences the depth of the well. Depending on the mass density or specific gravity of the object, the circumference and area of the gravity well experienced by the observer could be small or large, and limits of its gravity experienced by the observer are automatically defined. More the mass, the observer falls into a deeper the gravity well; more the mass density, narrower the gravity well as experienced by the observer.

Once the observer is inside the well, the observer sees the following:

1. If the target object is a star, like our sun, its gravity well is made up predominately of a lot of lighter elements like hydrogen and helium, plus elementary particles like neutrinos, plasma and light photons, all with their own gravity wells, except for the light photons. These gravity wells are shallow and move around violently the space-time fabric inside the star as a result of the high-temperature thermonuclear fusion inside the star core, and the property of the plasma at the outer surface. Light and neutrinos released from the inner fusion core will be escaping through the maze of dense concentrations of the gravity wells bounced around by the gravity wells, some also absorbed by the gravity wells and reemitted consecutively making their way to to the exterior of the star, finally to escape out of the star.
2. In the case of a black hole, the gravity well would be very narrow and extremely deep, almost to the singularity level of being bottomless, not even observable by an observer.
3. In the case of dark matter, of which very little is understood, the gravity well profile is not characterizable, either the density of matter is much higher, six times than Baryonic matter, or the dark matter pervades the universe six-time compared to Baryonic matter. When an observer approaches or is attracted towards, dark matter, it may experience a very deep gravity well with a smaller circumference and area. However, it is not known what the observer would experience once inside the gravity well, if it would observe numerous smaller gravity wells, which make up the dark matter, that is either six times denser than Baryonic matter, probably because the individual atom equivalents have much lower radius compared to the Baryonic atom with the electron orbits far enough to make the Baryonic atom larger, the far away orbits of the electrons make the atoms in Baryonic matter resulting larger atoms than what the dark matter atomic equivalents may be in size.

Mass of an Object Depends on the Gravity Well it Resides

1. Mass and its gravity well would be different from the same mass in different wells. Let us take the example of the gravity well of our earth. Any object that falls into the earth's gravity well is trapped in that well. Many cosmic objects have fallen to earth owing to the gravitational pull of the earth. For hundreds of millions of years to few billion years of the earth, many meteorites, comets, and asteroids have fallen on the earth. However, our earth and all the planets in our solar system are trapped in the sun's gravity well. Our moon is also trapped in the earth's gravity well. Similarly, the planets in our solar system have their own moons trapped in the gravity well of the planets.
2. Our sun is also trapped in the gravity well of our galaxy, along with all other billions of stars. All these stars are basically trapped within the grips of the center of our galaxy, which is a black hole.
3. The different galaxies and galaxy clusters are in the gravity wells of dark matter. The first gravity well in the universe was the big bang itself, which contained all in the universe.
4. The gravity wells of different sizes are inside bigger gravity wells, like the Russian dolls. If you open the Russian doll, there would be another Russian doll, and in turn another Russian doll and so on!
5. If an object that is already trapped in a gravity well wants to escape out of the gravity well, it needs to gain an “escape velocity”, which in turn requires energy to gain the escape velocity. The mass of the object depends on the escape velocity, momentum, acceleration, and the required energy to gain the momentum and acceleration to escape. In other words, the parameters of the requirements for escape itself defines and is a measure of the mass of the object. If the and when the object escapes the gravity well, it may travel for some time, only to be captured by another gravity well. The mass of the object after it falls into the gravity well of the second largest object will be different, as the second home of the object in the new gravity well requires a new escape velocity and other related physical parameters. Thus the object does not have a true mass, but changes based on the gravity well it resides.
6. When meteorites, comets, and asteroids fall into the earth, their original travel trajectory was defined by the sun and its gravity well. Inside the gravity well of the sun are many shallower gravity wells of the different planets, the earth being only one of them. After the meteorites, comets, and asteroids fall into the sun's gravity well, they may enter the gravity well of any of the sun's planet, and in the subsequent stage also fall into the gravity well of the moons of the different planets.
7. Therefore, the celestial objects falling into the sun's gravity well continue to fall into the planetary gravity wells inside the sun's gravity well. Every stellar and galactic gravity well has a series gravity wells inside the gravity wells.
8. Any object truly does not have one escape velocity and one mass defining it, but many depending on the frame of reference of a gravity well. An object, for example, that wants to escape the gravity well, once it does escape, has a series of wells out of which it should escape, with practically no limit.
9. The only limit to series of escapes for an object, with respect to an observer looking at the escaping object, is the Hubble horizon limit. It does not mean that the object has finished completely escaping not to be bound to any gravity well. The Hubble horizon limit refers to an observer trying to observe the escaping object from a distance.
10. However, for an observer that is on or part of the object, the escape probably never ends, as there is the world, but not observable by another from an observer r remote object once the object crosses the Hubble horizon with respect to an observer,
11. In fact, the dark energy makes it possible for objects of super galactic scale to run away from an observer out of its Hubble horizon. There is no singular Hubble horizon but is only defined with respect to a remote observer.